The end of the 19th century saw an institutionalization of psychology as an academic and scientific discipline at universities. This was made visible in the establishment of professorships, courses of study, and facilities such as laboratories.

Associated with these developments, a professionalization and networking of academics took place, with the emergence of professional organizations, associated meetings, and publication outlets, some of which survive to the present day.

The emergence of institutions and communication channels is associated with increased academic productivity but also conceptual discussion about the proper way of conducting the study of the mind.

While there was some consensus for a focus on consciousness as the target of study and the need for rigorous experimentation and measurement, the first conceptual clashes took place when authors started identifying themselves with “schools” or approaches, with some emphasizing the importance of identifying mental elements – structuralism – and others arguing for the need to understand their function – functionalism. The clash between understanding the “what” and the “why” of mental processes had begun.

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